The coronaviruses (order Nidovirales, family Coronaviridae, genus Coronavirus) are a diverse group of large, enveloped, positive-stranded RNA viruses that cause respiratory and enteric diseases in humans and other animals. At approximately 30,000 nucleotides (nt), their genome is the largest found in any of the RNA viruses. Coronaviruses are spherical, 100-160 nm in diameter with 20-40 nm complex club shaped surface projections surrounding the periphery. Coronaviruses share common structural proteins including a spike protein (S), membrane protein (M), envelope protein (E), and, in a subset of coronaviruses, a hemagglutinin-esterase protein (HE). The S protein, a glycoprotein which protrudes from the virus membrane, is involved in host cell receptor binding and is a target for neutralizing antibodies. The E and M proteins are involved in virion formation and release from the host cell. Coronavirus particles are found within the cisternae of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and in vesicles of infected host cells where virions are assembled. The coronavirus genome consists of two open reading frames (ORF1a and ORF1b) yielding an RNA polymerase and a nested set of subgenomic mRNAs encoding structural and nonstructural proteins, including the S, E, M, and nucleocapsid (N) proteins. The genus Coronavirus includes at least 13 species which have been subdivided into at least three groups (groups I, II, and III) on the basis of serological and genetic properties (deVries et al., Sem. Virol. 8:33-47, 1997; Fields et al. eds. Fields Virology, 3rd edition, Raven Press, Philadelphia, 1323-1341, 1996; Mahey and Collier eds. Microbiology and Microbial Infections, Volume 1 Virology, 9th edition, Oxford University Press, 463-479, 1998).
The three known groups of coronavirus are associated with a variety of diseases of humans and domestic animals (for example, cattle, pigs, cats, dogs, rodents, and birds), including gastroenteritis and upper and lower respiratory tract disease. Known coronaviruses include human Coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E), canine coronavirus (CCoV), feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV), porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), human coronavirus OC43 (HCoV-OC43), bovine coronavirus (BCoV), porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (HEV), rat sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV), mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), turkey coronavirus (TCoV), and avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV-Avian) (Fields et al. eds. Fields Virology, 3rd edition, Raven Press, Philadelphia, 1323-1341, 1996; Mahey and Collier eds. Microbiology and Microbial Infections, Volume 1 Virology, 9th edition, Oxford University Press, 463-479, 1998).
Coronavirus infections are generally host specific with respect to infectivity and clinical symptoms. Coronaviruses further exhibit marked tissue tropism; infection in the incorrect host species or tissue type may result in an abortive infection, mutant virus production and altered virulence. Coronaviruses generally do not grow well in cell culture, and animal models for human coronavirus infection are lacking. Therefore, little is known about them (Fields et al. eds. Fields Virology, 3rd edition, Raven Press, Philadelphia, 1323-1341, 1996). The known human coronaviruses are notably fastidious in cell culture, preferring select cell lines, organ culture, or suckling mice for propagation. Coronaviruses grown in cell culture exhibit varying degrees of virulence and/or cytopathic effect (CPE) depending on the host cell type and culture conditions. The only human or animal coronavirus which has been shown to grow in Vero E6 cells is PEDV, and it requires the addition of trypsin to culture medium for growth in Vero E6 cells. Moreover, PEDV adapted to Vero E6 cell culture results in a strikingly different CPE, with cytoplasmic vacuoles and the formation of large syncytia (Hofmann and Wyler, J. Clin. Micro. 26:2235-39, 1988; Kusanagi et el., J. Vet. Med. Sci. 554:313-18, 1991).
Coronavirus have not previously been known to cause severe disease in humans, but have been identified as a major cause of upper respiratory tract illness, including the common cold. Repeat infections in humans are common within and across serotype, suggesting that immune response to coronavirus infection in humans is either incomplete or short lived. Coronavirus infection in animals can cause severe enteric or respiratory disease. Vaccination has been used successfully to prevent and control some coronavirus infections in animals. The ability of animal-specific coronaviruses to cause severe disease raises the possibility that coronavirus could also cause more severe disease in humans (Fields et al. eds. Fields Virology, 3rd edition, Raven Press, Philadelphia, 1323-1341, 1996; Mahey and Collier eds. Microbiology and Microbial Infections, Volume 1 Virology, 9th edition, Oxford University Press, 463-479, 1998).
In late 2002, cases of life-threatening respiratory disease with no identifiable etiology were reported from Guangdong Province, China, followed by reports from Vietnam, Canada, and Hong Kong of severe febrile respiratory illness that spread to household members and health care workers. The syndrome was designated “severe acute respiratory syndrome” (SARS) in February 2003 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (MMWR, 52:241-48, 2003).
Past efforts to develop rapid diagnostics and vaccines for coronavirus infection in humans have been hampered by a lack of appropriate research models and the moderate course of disease in humans. Therefore, a need for rapid diagnostic tests and vaccines exists.